Biology Study Materials

Cell structure, organelles (mitochondria, Golgi, ER), cell membrane, cell division (mitosis, meiosis).

Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, enzymes — structure, function, and metabolism.

Photosynthesis, respiration, transport, mineral nutrition, plant growth regulators, and photoperiodism.

Digestive, respiratory, circulatory, excretory, nervous, and endocrine systems.

Mendelian genetics, chromosomal theory, sex determination, mutations, and DNA replication.

Origin of life, theories of evolution, natural selection, Hardy-Weinberg law, and speciation.

Recombinant DNA technology, PCR, cloning, transgenic organisms, and bioethics.

Ecosystems, food chains, energy flow, biogeochemical cycles, biodiversity, and conservation.

Asexual reproduction, sexual reproduction in plants and animals, human reproduction, and reproductive health.

Bacteria, viruses, fungi, immunity, vaccines, human diseases, and health.

Classification of animals — porifera, coelenterata, platyhelminthes, nematoda, arthropoda, chordata.

Classification of plants — algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms.